Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture (PWSA) for the US Space Force

I suppose this is on track to make the Air Force Obsolete, since Space Force would include the Atmospheric domain in addition to Space.

Nobody

Mar 30, 2023

The emblem of the United States Space Force.

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Watch SpaceX launch 10 satellites for US Space Force Friday

By Mike Wall

published about 6 hours ago

Launch of the Tranche 0 mission is scheduled for 10:29 a.m. ET on Friday (March 31).

Update for 10:30 a.m. EDT on March 30: SpaceX aborted an attempted launch of the Tranche 0 satellites on Thursday (March 30) with three seconds left in the countdown clock. The next possible launch opportunity comes Friday (March 31) at 10:29 a.m. EDT (1429 GMT), though it's not clear at the moment if SpaceX will attempt to hit that target.

SpaceX will launch a set of satellites for the U.S. Space Force Friday (March 31), and you can watch the action live.

A Falcon 9 rocket topped with 10 spacecraft for the Space Force's Space Development Agency (SDA) is scheduled to lift off from California's Vandenberg Space Force Base Friday at 10:29 a.m. EDT (1429 GMT; 7:29 a.m. local California time.

Watch it live here at Space.com, courtesy of SpaceX, or directly via the company(opens in new tab). Coverage is expected to begin about 15 minutes before liftoff.

If all goes according to plan, the Falcon 9's first stage will come back to Earth safely, touching down at Vandenberg's Landing Zone 4 just under eight minutes after liftoff.

It will be the second launch and landing for this particular booster, according to a SpaceX mission description(opens in new tab). The rocket previously helped launch a batch of SpaceX's Starlink satellites to orbit.

The Falcon 9's upper stage, meanwhile, will continue carrying the Tranche 0 satellites to orbit. The SpaceX mission description doesn't say when the spacecraft are scheduled to be deployed. That's not terribly surprising; details about national security missions such as this one are often hard to come by.

SDA Layered Network of Military Satellites Now Known as “Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture”

The Space Development Agency’s resilient layered network of military satellites and supporting elements is now the “Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture” or PWSA. The architecture, formerly known as the “National Defense Space Architecture,” was renamed to more specifically reflect the agency’s mission to deliver needed space-based capabilities to the joint warfighter to support terrestrial missions through development, fielding, and operation of a proliferated low Earth orbit (pLEO) constellation of satellites. The spiral development and fielding of SDA’s mesh network has matured successfully, but the constellations’ original name did not accurately convey its current scope and purpose. The new constellation name became effective January 23, 2023.

Now integral members of the U.S. Space Force, SDA continues the integration of its space acquisition and operations into the overall national defense hybrid space enterprise, including pLEO advancements to support no-fail missions such as end-to-end missile warning, missile tracking, and missile defense. Maintaining technological and military advantages in space for the warfighter requires developing a resilient hybrid architecture through an integrated diversification of orbits and proliferation of satellites.

The constellation name change will have no impact to the SDA mission. Leveraging speed, delivery, and agility, SDA will continue to quickly deliver needed space-based capabilities to the joint warfighter to support terrestrial missions through development, fielding, and operation of the PWSA.

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URL here. Thats not very useful detail. Heres a better article with more indepth review of the whole Play.

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The Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture (PWSA): An Explainer

By Rachael Zisk

Note: This article refers to the National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA), which has since been renamed the Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture (PWSA).

Over the last few years, the space industry has grown by leaps and bounds, pushing our space capabilities forward at an unprecedented rate.

While its weapons systems may be fast, the Pentagon’s procurement process isn’t exactly known for its speed. Acquisition of new technology platforms is notoriously lengthy and complicated, and in the past, it’s been difficult for top brass to equip the warfighter with cutting-edge commercial technology as it’s developed and ready to be deployed.

Still, the DoD is actively seeking ways that it can take advantage of the strides being made by the domestic space industry.

“The traditional ways of doing space acquisition must be reformed in order to add speed to our acquisitions to meet our priorities,” Frank Calvelli, US Air Force acquisition lead, said in a recent memorandum. “Former approaches of developing a small amount of large satellites, along with large monolithic ground systems taking many years to develop, can no longer be the norm.”

In 2019, the Defense Department stood up the Space Development Agency (SDA). Originally an independent defense agency, the SDA was given a mandate to move fast to put newly emerging technologies into the warfighter’s hands. The SDA is now part of the Space Force, but its mission remains the same.

The architects: an origin story

The SDA was the Pentagon’s answer to the lengthy procurement cycles plaguing the adoption of emerging space capabilities.

“A national security space architecture that provides the persistent, resilient, global, low-latency surveillance needed to deter or, if deterrence fails, defeat adversary action is a prerequisite to maintaining our long-term competitive advantage,” then-Secretary of Defense Patrick Shanahan wrote in a 2019 memorandum establishing the agency. “We cannot achieve these goals, and we cannot match the pace our adversaries are setting, if we remain bound by legacy methods and culture.”

The National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA) grew out of these goals. In essence, the NDSA is a tactical LEO network designed to communicate missile warnings; position, navigation, and timing data; and other vital information to wherever it’s needed on the ground as quickly and securely as possible.

“It’s going to enable that data creation and pointed deployment with the least possible latency so that the warfighter can actually do the missions that they need to do on a much more efficient basis,” Frank Turner, technical director of the SDA, told Payload.

“Effective is doing things right, efficiency is doing the right thing. And this will enable us for the first time from a tactical perspective to truly have a global efficiency that we haven’t had before.”

The division of labor

While the SDA is very new on the block, space is old hat for the Pentagon. The DoD is among the earliest adopters of space, as it’s been launching rockets for seven decades and flying satellites for five. Authority and oversight of various defense offices have shifted over the years.

Today, the warfighter’s geostationary (GEO) and mid-Earth orbit (MEO) missile-tracking assets are operated primarily by two other agencies within the DoD: the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) and Space Systems Command (SSC). The three agencies now work closely together to coordinate constellation planning and actions to ensure that the Pentagon’s national defense system in space works as seamlessly as possible.

The MDA is a descendant of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a 1983 Reagan initiative to consolidate offices across the DoD conducting disparate, incomplete missile defense strategies. Since then, the office has had a handful of names, becoming MDA officially in 2002 after the US exited the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.

MDA operates the Ballistic Missile Defense System (BMDS), which includes a GEO constellation component performing missile detection and tracking duties.

SSC, with a mandate to deliver “lethal and resilient” space capabilities for national defense, also has a long heritage of providing services from space. SSC’s operational sweet spot is in MEO and GEO.

Though the MDA and SSC had been operating space assets for decades, there was still one orbital regime missing. Turner described the NDSA as the LEO portion of the DoD’s space network.

“Everybody is bringing their core competencies or capabilities to the table for an integrated architecture that will provide the supporting missile tracking and missile defense capability that the US desperately needs,” Turner said.

The trains leave on time

To build such a complex system while still adhering to its “move fast” mandate, the SDA broke the architecture down into bite-size chunks known as “tranches.” Taking a page from the Silicon Valley iterative playbook, the SDA envisions each tranche as a new generation of the NDSA. The agency has a set schedule in place to launch a new tranche, carrying a new generation of capabilities, in September of even-numbered years.

By using this timeline, the SDA aims to set expectations and strengthen the DoD’s relationship with private space players.

“One of the things that I always wished for when I was in industry was a schedule from the government that I can truly count on, and demand signals from the government that I can truly count on,” Turner said. “SDA prides itself on providing this schedule and those demands that enable the industry to go out and do the things that they need to be doing to be ready for what, at SDA, is essentially a continuous acquisition process.”

The trains leave on time. If a particular technology isn’t ready in time to launch on one tranche, it can be ready for the next one two years later.

Tranche 0, the first batch of satellites going up for the NDSA, was originally slated to launch in September of this year. That launch was delayed to mid-December, primarily due to chip shortages and SDA contractors’ supply chain issues. The SDA declined to give an estimate for when that launch will occur, but said that it expects the satellites to perform their first demonstrations on schedule next summer.

The tranches

Here’s a succinct description of each tranche from the SDA itself:

“Tranche 0 (FY22)—Warfighter immersion: The minimum viable product is demonstrating the feasibility of the proliferated architecture in cost, schedule, and scalability towards necessary performance for beyond line of sight targeting and advanced missile detection and tracking.
Tranche 1 (FY24)—Initial warfighting capability: Regional persistence for tactical data links, advanced missile detection, and beyond line of sight targeting.
Tranche 2 (FY26)—Global persistence for all in Tranche 1. This will incorporate lessons learned from operating gen 0 for at least two years.
Tranche 3 (FY28)—Advanced improvements over Tranche 2. This includes better sensitivity for missile tracking, better targeting capabilities for BLOS, additional PNT capabilities, advances in blue/green lasercom and protected RF comm.
Tranche 4 (FY30)—“Continual advances to the layers, including additional capabilities identified as current or future threats to the warfighter.”

The layers

The NDSA is, at its core, a proliferated LEO constellation, which just means that it’s made up of a large network of small satellites, rather than the traditional handful of “big, juicy targets” in GEO. This approach has the added benefit of drastically lowering price points, as smallsats are far cheaper than the nine-figure GEO satellites usually procured by the DoD.

The SDA categorizes its constellation by function, rather than by satellite. The NDSA is organized into seven “layers,” each performing a vital function of the architecture. Some of these layers are constellations themselves, some are payloads, and some are not physical assets at all. Each layer, however, represents an add-on capability for the overall system.

Support

“Support” is the umbrella term that the SDA uses to describe all the ground stations, launchers, and other infrastructure that lays the foundation for the NDSA to work.

The ground systems piece is the largest function of the Support Layer. The SDA plans to create a system that can be integrated with existing ground stations around the world, ensuring that information can travel wherever it’s needed on the ground as quickly as possible.

Launch is also included in the Support Layer infrastructure. SpaceX won the contract to launch the NDSA’s 28 Tranche 0 satellites, and all payload integration and satellite operations fall under this layer. Side note: the SDA launched its first satellites with SpaceX on the Transporter-2 mission in June 2021.

Transport

The NDSA contains two separate constellations: the Transport and Tracking layers. The first one is the Transport Layer, which will form a mesh network in LEO connected by optical inter-satellite links. These links, which transmit data via laser, can transmit data at light speed using a very narrow beam that is much more difficult to intercept than traditional radio transmission.

“The transport layer is really kind of the heartbeat of the NDSA,” said Turner. All the information transmitted across the architecture will travel through the transport layer. Then, the layer will route it to where it needs to be on the ground.

“So, we’re going to build this mesh network where every satellite has four friends—a friend behind it, a friend in front of it, a friend on the left, and a friend on the right that it talks to, and it talks to all the time,” Turner said. “And those friends talk to their friends, and their friends talk to their friends.” The end result: a global satellite network of besties connected at light speed.

This spatial positioning not only allows information to travel more quickly and securely, but also makes the satellites much more difficult to hit than their higher flying, slower moving counterparts. If an enemy nation were to destroy one satellite in the mesh network, the data could still reroute between the other Transport satellites to get where it needed to go.

20 Transport Layer satellites are slated to launch soon, as part of Tranche 0.

Tracking

The Tracking layer is the second constellation, and it does the actual remote sensing and Earth observation from LEO.

Tracking Layer birds will be fitted with infrared sensors to spot and track missile threats. These satellites will be connected to the Transport Layer through optical links, and their data can be transmitted across the mesh network and downlinked to the ground.

Tranche 0 will include eight Tracking Layer satellites. The ratio between Transport and Tracking layer satellites is expected to remain roughly proportional as additional tranches are launched and hundreds more satellites are added to the constellations.

Navigation

The Navigation layer is not actually a constellation itself, but rather an added benefit of the mesh network formed by the Transport Layer satellites. By nature of the mesh network spanning the globe, the Transport satellites will be able to transmit precise position, navigation and timing (PNT) data.

“We’re not trying to replace GPS under any circumstance—it’s a core capability that will remain a core capability,” Turner said. “But what we’re doing is for those days when GPS is out of band, that we will have the ability for the warfighter to still know what time it is to the accuracy that they need on a global basis, and to know where they are to the accuracy that they need.”

Battle Management

Each Transport Layer satellite carries a payload hosting a computer to dynamically manage interactions between the satellites as well as the individual layers. This package is referred to as the Battle Management layer. This layer, which will be hosted on most or all NDSA satellites, is tasked with on-orbit processing (or “edge computing”), which can reduce the pain points associated with relaying data.

“If you’re going to move data from point A to point B with the lowest possible latency, one of the things that you want to get away from is the whole idea of coming down to the ground and going back after you’ve done the data processing,” Turner said. The Battle Management layer cuts out that middle step.

Custody

Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) functions are the domain of the Custody Layer. The ISR satellites are responsible for detecting and tracking targets on the ground.

The SDA is not planning to launch its own Custody Layer constellation. Part of the appeal of the mesh network is that other assets in orbit can transmit data through the network, eliminating the need for redundant SDA sensing sats. Those other assets could be commercial satellites already collecting sensing data or spy satellites operated by the NRO and other intelligence agencies.

Emerging Capabilities

The final layer of the architecture leaves a little wiggle room for the development of new space technologies. As of this writing, a potential space domain awareness capability is wrapped into this category, meaning that the SDA is still looking into the possibility of deploying or purchasing awareness capabilities.

To identify other emerging technologies, the SDA works closely with other DoD offices and soldiers themselves. When a technology comes to market with the potential to augment the NDSA’s capabilities and provide value to military end users, the SDA has committed to conduct experiments and explore the possibility of rolling those technologies out on a larger scale. Right now, these technologies include tagging and tracking, radio frequency identification, alternative navigation systems, and tactical communications support.

The next few years

The SDA is aiming to stick to its mandate, moving as quickly as possible over the next few years to get a functional architecture in place for the warfighter. As it’s currently envisioned, the NDSA taps into many zeitgeisty space technology concepts, from optical links to on-orbit processing.

The Pentagon will be watching closely to see how the technology takes shape in low Earth orbit, alongside (or in contrast) to that of other players developing similar capabilities. In terms of what’s next, the first Tranche 0 launch could happen as early as mid-December. It’s entirely possible that it could slip into the new year (see: Berger’s law).

After its first NDSA launch, the SDA plans to continue launching tranches containing new generations of Transport and Tracking Layer satellites (and all the capabilities that come with them) with the “trains on time” mentality.

That much better article originated here.

Heres a separate article that expounds on how the Space Force emerged from the Air Force.

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What is the U.S. Space Force and what does it do?

By Brett Tingley

published February 14, 2023

The Space Force motto, "Semper supra," is Latin for "Always above," a phrase that encapsulates the service's mission.

(Image credit: U.S. Space Force)

Jump to:

The United States Space Force was established as the sixth and newest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces on Dec. 20, 2019 when the National Defense Authorization Act was signed into law. Before that, the United States hadn't created a new military branch since 1946, when it stood up the Air Force.

The push for a dedicated branch of the armed services devoted to the final frontier gained steam as orbital space became increasingly crowded and contested. As the United States' critical infrastructure became increasingly dependent on satellites for communication, navigation, meteorology and intelligence, the U.S. Department of Defense likewise identified a need for a branch of the military dedicated solely to operating and protecting these assets. Thus, Space Force was created.

The service's motto, "Semper supra," is Latin for "Always above," a phrase that encapsulates the Space Force's mission. Its symbol, the Delta, signifies the service's responsibilities and mission while honoring its long history that began long before the Space Force was created in 2019.

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SPACE FORCE HISTORY

The history of the U.S. Space Force dates back to 1954 when the U.S. Air Force created a division tasked with overseeing the U.S. military's ballistic missiles. This division evolved several times throughout the following decades and merged with other organizations as the United States began placing more satellites in orbit for communications and early missile warning systems. In 1982, the Air Force stood up Air Force Space Command, making it the first operational space command in the U.S. Armed Forces. Air Force Space Command continued to grow from the 1980s onward as the Department of Defense (DOD) sought to consolidate its space operations.

On Dec. 20, 2019, Air Force Space Command was renamed United States Space Force and was established as an independent service when President Donald Trump signed the 2020 National Defense Authorization Act, the laws overseen by the U.S. Congress that authorize annual military expenditures. Under the structure signed into law, Space Force would be part of the U.S. Department of the Air Force, in much the same way that the United States Marine Corps is part of the U.S. Department of the Navy.

At its creation, 16,000 military and civilian personnel were assigned to the Space Force. As of January 2023, the service consists of 4,286 enlisted service members and 4,314 officers, according to the Air Force Times(opens in new tab), making it the smallest branch of the U.S. military. The U.S. Navy, by comparison, has well over 300,000 active duty members, while the U.S. Army boasts close to 500,000 active service members.

Space Force service members are known as Guardians, a name announced in a 2020 ceremony marking the service's first anniversary. The service's service dress uniforms were debuted in a Sept. 2021 ceremony, revealing them to be a six-button double-breasted tunic that drew comparisons(opens in new tab) to the costumes worn in the sci-fi series "Battlestar Galactica."

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WHAT DOES THE SPACE FORCE DO?

According to the U.S. Space Force's mission statement(opens in new tab), the service is responsible for "organizing, training, and equipping Guardians to conduct global space operations that enhance the way our joint and coalition forces fight, while also offering decision-makers military options to achieve national objectives."

To accomplish this mission, Space Force is organized into three main divisions: Field commands, Deltas and squadrons. The service's three field commands are Space Operations Command (SpOC), Space Systems Command (SSC) and Space Training and Readiness Command (STARCOM). Field commands oversee broad mission goals.

Space Operations Command, for example, is responsible for providing "combat ready" space capabilities, cyber operations and intelligence in support of U.S. military operations, according to a SpOc fact sheet(opens in new tab).

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Space Systems Command, meanwhile, is responsible for the service's development and acquisition of new space technologies and capabilities. The command's website(opens in new tab) writes that SSC is tasked with "developing, acquiring, equipping, fielding and sustaining lethal and resilient space capabilities for warfighters." This mission includes overseeing launch operations and on-orbit maintenance of DOD satellites and other space systems.

Space Training and Readiness Command, or STARCOM, as its name suggests, is tasked with educating and training Space Force personnel "to fight and win in a contested, degraded, and operationally limited environment through the deliberate development, education and training of space professionals; development of space warfighting doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures; and the test and evaluation of USSF capabilities," according to its website(opens in new tab).

Within each field command are various Space Force Deltas. Deltas have a much more specific function, such as operations, training or facility support, according to a 2020 Space Force statement(opens in new tab). For example, Space Launch Delta 45(opens in new tab) (SLD 45) at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida is tasked with overseeing all space launch operations from the U.S. East Coast, including from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. SLD 45 manages the Eastern Range, a massive rocket range that stretches out over the Atlantic Ocean into the Indian Ocean, and provides launch support for the DOD, NASA and private space launch providers.

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Each Delta is further divided into squadrons, each tasked with a specific purpose that supports the overall mission of its respective field command. The 45th Weather Squadron(opens in new tab), for example, is part of Space Launch Delta 45 at Patrick Space Force Base in Florida and is responsible for performing weather observations and making forecasts in support of launch operations at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and NASA's Kennedy Space Center.

These squadrons, Deltas, and field commands work together to ensure that the Space Force can protect U.S. space assets as Earth orbit becomes increasingly contested. In recent decades, the United States' peer adversaries such as China and Russia have advanced their own space capabilities to the point where U.S. satellites are under attack daily, according to U.S. Space Force Gen. David Thompson, then vice chief of space operations. Thompson told The Washington Post(opens in new tab) in 2021 that "threats are really growing and expanding every single day. And it's really an evolution of activity that's been happening for a long time," adding that "we're really at a point now where there's a whole host of ways that our space systems can be threatened."

More recent statements by U.S. Space Force leadership echo this same sentiment. Gen. B. Chance Saltzman, the branch's chief of space operations, said at the Reagan National Defense Forum in Simi Valley, California in December 2022 that protecting United States capabilities in space has become one of the Pentagon's top priorities, SpaceNews reported(opens in new tab). "The capability that space offers has demonstrated its value so much so that both sides are engaged in trying to counter those capabilities and deny those advantages to the opponent," Saltzman said. Space is "clearly a contested domain," he added.

The ways in which satellites and other spacecraft can be threatened or countered range from reversible, non-damaging capabilities on one end such as jamming GPS transmission or using lasers to blind satellites' optical sensors, to the other end that includes destructive anti-satellite missiles, tests of which have drawn condemnation from the international community.

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The U.S. Space Force has units tasked with tracking these threats and engaging in "on-orbit combat," although the exact capabilities of these units remain classified — as do many of the service's assets and technologies.

The U.S. Space Force systems and capabilities that are unclassified and known to the public include (but are not limited to) the Global Positioning System (GPS), overseen by Space Delta 8 at Schriever Space Force Base in Colorado; the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program(opens in new tab) (DMSP) that provides weather data to the U.S. military; and a wide variety of intelligence, surveillance and missile early warning systems like the Next Generation Overhead Persistent InfraRed(opens in new tab) system (Next-Gen OPIR), Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) program and the Space Tracking and Surveillance System.(opens in new tab)

Space Force also tracks objects from low Earth orbit all the way to deep space using a variety of ground-based sensors like the Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance(opens in new tab) (GEODSS) system.

Perhaps most well-known of all Space Force assets is the X-37B, the Boeing-built space plane whose missions remain largely mysterious despite many high-profile long-duration flights in orbit.

Since the creation of the Space Force, the service has largely turned to commercial launch providers to loft its satellites and other assets to orbit. Since 2020, ULA and SpaceX have been the exclusive launch providers for the U.S. Space Force, although the service is looking to partner with more providers from 2023 onward, according to SpaceNews(opens in new tab).

WHERE ARE SPACE FORCE BASES?

Today, U.S. Space Force operates six dedicated Space Force bases, two of which host orbital launches for the service's many satellites and spacecraft. These include:

Buckley Space Force Base(opens in new tab), Aurora, Colorado
Los Angeles Air Force Base(opens in new tab), El Segundo, California
Patrick Space Force Base(opens in new tab), Brevard County, Florida
Peterson Space Force Base(opens in new tab), Colorado Springs, Colorado
Schriever Space Force Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Vandenberg Space Force Base(opens in new tab), Santa Barbara County, California

Vandenberg Space Force Base is home to Space Launch Delta 30(opens in new tab), which oversees the Western Range and manages launch activities for the DOD, NASA and private space firms. The Western Range stretches from the West Coast of the United States into the Indian Ocean, where it meets the Eastern Range.

In addition to these Space Force bases, the service operates eight Space Force stations, which include:

Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Cape Cod Space Force Station, Bourne Massachusetts
Cavalier Space Force Station, Cavalier, North Dakota
Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Clear Space Force Station, Clear, Alaska
Kaena Point Space Force Station, Honolulu County, Hawaii
New Boston Space Force Station, New Boston, New Hampshire
Thule Air Base, Qaanaaq, Greenland

Cape Canaveral Space Force Station is home to Space Launch Delta 45 and oversees launches for a variety of space agencies and companies, including NASA's Kennedy Space Center. During the historic launch of NASA's Artemis 1 mission to the moon in November 2022, for example, SLD 45 oversaw radar tracking of the agency's SLS mega moon rocket over the Eastern Range.

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WHAT IS THE SPACE FORCE SYMBOL?

The U.S. Space Force's symbol is known as a delta. It's a triangular or chevron shape featuring elements that represent the service's mission and history.

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The silver outline of the delta represents the service's commitment to protecting U.S. space assets from adversaries and threats. In the center, a symbol representing the North Star, Polaris, represents the core values that guide Space Force, in much the same way the North Star has guided travelers for millennia.

Alongside the North Star are four triangular elements that represent four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces: the Army, Air Force, Navy and Marines. Finally, in the top of the delta symbol are two bright lines representing a rocket launching into orbit. This element symbolizes the central role of Space Force in overseeing launch operations on behalf of the Pentagon.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

U.S. Space Force represents the growing role that space plays in all of humanity's endeavors, including military operations. To learn more about the service, visit the Space Force's official website(opens in new tab). Space Force's many operations and facilities are explained in greater detail in a series of fact sheets(opens in new tab) hosted on the service's website.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

United States Space Force History, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/About-Space-Force/History/(opens in new tab)

United States Space Force Locations, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/Space-Force-Locations/(opens in new tab)

What's the Space Force?, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/FAQs/Whats-the-Space-Force/(opens in new tab)

New in 2023: Saltzman leads Space Force into its 4th year, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your-air-force/2023/01/03/new-in-2023-saltzman-leads-space-force-into-its-4th-year/(opens in new tab)

Beyond Space Horizons: A Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA355572(opens in new tab)

About Space Operations Command, [Accessed 01/31/23]
https://www.spoc.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/About-Space-Operations-Command(opens in new tab)

About Space Systems Command, [Accessed 1/31/23]
https://www.ssc.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/About-Space-Systems-Command(opens in new tab)

Space Training and Readiness Command: Who We Are, [Accessed 1/31/23]
https://www.starcom.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/Who-We-Are/(opens in new tab)

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